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In the context of computer games, ethics are defined by applying moral values and principles prevalent in reality to the virtual world of the computer game and player’s role in it. This is due to the quality standards of today’s computer games. Technological advances allow graphical representation on screen to be more lifelike than at the introductory stage of computer games. With the improvement of graphics’ resolutions and realism of game play, the nature of the player’s experience increases as well (Wolf, 2003, p. 64).
The definition of computer games and ethics has to be read considering at least five aspects:
1) the definition of computer games
2) the underlying intention of game play
3) the genres of computer games
4) the definition of moral values and principles
5) the profile of the player
John Hartley defines computer games as “technological-recreational fantasy entertainment�? (2002, p. 92). This implies that the experience made playing a computer game happens on an abstract level. Although game players might identify themselves with characters they control, it is a virtual identity they temporarily adopt. This virtual identity exists in an intangible world that is not comparable to reality. Newman points out that “game play is its own reward and is clearly distinguished from ordinary life�? (2004, p.18). Therefore, real moral values and principles might not be applicable.
Another aspect to be looked at before applying moral values and principles to computer games is the underlying intention of game play. In other words: Why do people enter the virtual world of computer games? Newman provides a list of factors that people are looking for playing a computer game (2004, p. 16). These include: novel or exciting situations to experience, stimulating puzzles to engage with, interesting environments to explore as well as suitable capabilities that must be earned, honed and perfected. Players are looking for some kind of challenge.
Further, the issue of ethics and computer games is often looked at very generally. It is important to clarify that there are different genres of computer games which do not have the same content. For instance, there are genres of computer games such as role play, strategy and simulation (Berens and Howard quoted by Newman, 2004, p. 11f.) where key ethical issues such as violence and aggression are rare. However, they cause other concerns such as social isolation.
Regardless of the definition of computer games, the underlying intention of game play and the differentiation of computer game genre, moral values and principles are applied to the computer game. This mainly concerns the introduction of violence, aggression and sexual content in computer games. However, there is not one particular set of values and principles accepted by all humankind. Moral values and principles might broadly be the same within a society but they might be interpreted differently by the individual.
Also, ethics and computer games are often discussed with primarily one user group in mind: children and adolescents (Wolf, 2003, p. 64). Ethical issues, however, might be looked at differently depending on the particular age group of the player.
Another issue related to ethics and computer games concerns the lawfull handling of computer games as such and their content.
Consequently, the ongoing discussion about computer games and ethics has to be looked at carefully since one or more of the aspects above might be thrust into the background.
Ethical issues are discussed in relation to computer games because people see them as an experience. Through technological advances, the perception of computer games by the player, the public and critics has changed. Computer games have become more realistic and are experienced more intensely by the player. Elements of a computer game that contribute to that experience are: game design, interface, game play and story (Howland quoted in Newman, 2004, p. 10-11).
Ethical issues addressed in the ongoing discussion of computer games derive directly from the experience the player has. They are mainly concerned with two aspects: game content and game effect. Game content refers to occurrence of, for example, violence and sexual themes in a computer game. Game effect then looks at the outcome of game play. This outcome is considered either negative or positive. Game content and game effect have a causal relationship. They both influence the evaluation of computer games in ethical terms.
Historically, violence can be seen as the most common and major ethical issue identified and investigated with regard to computer games. It is a key issue with regard to game content and game effect. Effects of computer games that are classified ‘violent’ include: physiological responses such as violent behaviour, aggression, psychopathological effects such as social isolation and introversion and worsened academic performance, amongst others (Newman, 2004, p. 66ff.).
As Newman notes, “the extent of the research into the effects of violent videogames is problematic in itself as the findings of the various studies…are inconclusive and often contradictory�? (2004, p. 66). For instance, there are inconsistent definitions of violence within the research undertaken. The same is true for investigations into the field of participant aggression. Cause-effect relationships might not be given. “Having aggressive thoughts after playing video games does not necessarily translate into aggressive behaviour�? (Emes quoted in Newman, 2004, p. 66).
The topic of violence and computer games is discussed in further detail under ‘Violence in Videogames’ as well as in ‘Computer Games – Social Implications.’
Another issue of major ethical concern is sexual content in computer games. For example, the 1982 game 'Custer's Revenge' depicted a naked man raping an Indian woman tied to a pole (cf. Wolf, 2003, p.65). Scenarios like this contradict the concept of morality in computer games. Issues such as racialism and sexual abuse are revealed.
An issue that concerns all computer games is the addiction to a game. It is closely linked to social isolation that results from excessive game play. People focus on the game more than on their real environment and retreat more and more into the world of the game.
Addiction to computer games is discussed under ‘Virtual Identities – social impacts’
Negative effects of game play are, however, only one way to look at computer games. Present day research indicates that playing computer games allow for social interaction and online collaboration along with instilling values and allowing people to adopt and learn skills that may be relevant for real day to day living (Squire in Trotter, 2004). Maney (2005) also signifies the role in which games are creating a norm which will play a role in the way the current generation will work and manage data in the future.
In the 1990s, critics also pointed out that computer games contained value to its consumers. A form of cultural communication was being transmitted to players, along with educative qualities instilled in the narrative of games (Crawford in Reeder, 1992).
With rapidly changing technology and the development of graphically enhanced and interactive games, recent studies have to expand into the fields of research mentioned above.
Computer games play a significant role in young people’s relationships with their families
and their peers (Buckingham, 1993). They are a widely available format of entertainment that have been disseminated to the broadest segments of society (Singer & Singer, 2005). As a result, concern has arisen over the moral implications of computer games and youth culture. These primarily focus on the effects of computer games on the cognitive and emotional behaviour of youths and how they affect and impact social interaction. This particularly concerns the ability of children to distinguish between reality and virtuality. It also includes the issue of egocentrism (Myers, 1998, p. 37ff.). Egocentric behaviour is stimulated by characters in computer games as well as the player himself. One the one hand, game characters function as role models afar from the player. On the other hand, players have the possibility to assign qualities of the self to individual characters.
For a more detailed discussion of the effect of computer games on children, see ‘Computer Games - Children and Reality', 'Computer Games - Effects on Children' and Effects of Media Violence. Further social implications concerning the experienced gap between reality and the virtual world of computer games are addressed in 'Virtal Identities - Social Impacts' and 'Social Isolatin Vs Virtual Communities.
There are certain legal measures that can be uase as a tool in ensuring that computer games are designed and used in an ethical acceptable way. These include: gamers' right, EULA and censorship.
Burke (2004) illustrates that the developers of computer games have sovereignty over virtual worlds. They have exclusive power to game code. This code is law in the game world and it regulates and sanctions the behavior of game players. It is also used by game developers to claim property rights inside and outside of game environments. Conversely, players are allowed the freedom to perform any actions within the confines of the game codes and developer ownership laws. Within these confines, some players are empowered as governors, for example, in Massive Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG). Guilds are players who are given limited power from developers to govern and structure the communities in virtual worlds.
With regard to ethical issues, this implies that the main responsibility for game content lies with the game developer. They need to consider the ethical side of the game they design. In MMOG, the player, too, has to act ethically correct considering not only the individual but also the community they govern and structure.
Ethical behaviour and reasoning, again, is required with regards to the ownership of virtual property. Humphreys (2005, pp. 39-42) states that the gamers in the MMOG are productive players. They are creators of the text and the content of the game vary depending on their contributions. However, their right to sell their own characters and virtual items for real world currency are restricted by the End User License Agreement (EULA) (Carter, 2002). The EULA is an agreement between the developers and the game players which enable game companies to claim the property rights of computer games. This is an enforceable contract which directs what the players can and cannot do with the game (Garthilk, 2004). Whoever breaks the EULA will be regarded as a violation of the social contract (Burke, 2004). Gamers surrender all rights regarding to content upon assenting to the EULA every time they enter the game (CmdrSlack, 2005). As a result, the gamers may own a computer game they have purchased, but they are only licensed to use the software on the CD. Specifically, under the EULA, the gamers do not have the right to access the game engine and modify the game code as they lack ownership and sovereignty over the games (Rolston, 2000).
Considering the social impacts of computer games and the ethical issues raised, the access to computer games for certain users might need to be restricted. As pointed out elsewhere, the attitude of the Australian videogames censorship is questionable ('Computer Games – Issues', 2004). “The Office of Film and Literature has attracted much criticism for the absence of a Restricted 18+ category for games.�? This implies that children and adolescents are not protected from accessing computer games inappropriate for their age group. Also, adults can freely choose the games they consume.
As to the future of games, Newman (2004) regards factors such as next generation mobile devices, consumer behaviours and reactions, and graphics and gameplay as influential. Further considerations for the future include the technological advances that will inevitably cause scrutiny such as improved artifical intelligence (AI), for example, voice recognition incorporated into games (Poole, 2000). With the blurring of reality and the virtual, the incorporation of ethical issues such as crime and stealing, the illusion of a player becoming an actor in a game will surely provide theorists, academics, and players with a new array of issues to debate (Knight, 2005).
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Terence Otto
Ingrid Chan
Matthew Hsu
Sarah Harper
Chang I-Jung
Major Revision by: Caroline Jende
