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‘Media effects’ is a term ascribed the prolific body of research concerned with identifying a link between media content and behaviour in viewers. Effects research has been conducted since the 1920s when radio came to the fore as a mass medium in the United States. With the ensuing rise of cinema and television, academics, marketers and policy makers alike were keen to identify how the media influenced those who consumed it. In particular, many groups became concerned about the content of films and television shows. The effects model came about to describe the aims of those who sought to investigate the effects of sexual and violent content in popular film and television, comics or popular music on adolescents, women and other supposedly vulnerable groups (Hartley, 2003: 81).
The birth of effects theories such as that of the ‘hypodermic needle model’ (also known as the silver bullet approach) in the 1920s and 1930s positioned the communication process as being linear and one-way directional. In particular, the audience were seen as passive empty ‘vessels’ who had no input into how they interacted with the messages seen or heard within the media <http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/audience.html> September 2004. Such a view was popular until the 1950s when the limited effects model came into vogue. In contrast to earlier theories, the limited effects model suggested that people were not directly affected by what was contained within the media, but were actually influenced more by the actions of opinion leaders or prominent people in their society. Later research conducted in the 1960s and 1980s suggested that media texts were ‘read’ by viewers and were given meaning in accordance with their own background, personality and cultural context <http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/audience.html>, September 2004.
Despite the rise of later models that reduced the significance of the role of the media in determining people’s actions, the early effects model still exerts much influence over how people feel about new media technologies today. It especially features in the discourse of moral panics. Springhall states that a moral panic ‘occurs when the official or press reaction to a deviant social or cultural phenomenon is “out of all proportion� to the actual threat offered’ (1998:5). This can be very much aligned to the issue of violence in videogames. A large number of studies have strived to identify a causal link between violent content in video games and subsequent violent behaviour in gameplayers. While many of these studies claim to have identified a link, sceptics suggest that the approaches used were flawed and biased.
Anderson and Dill conducted a study into violent videogames to assess their impact on the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of gameplayers. Their findings suggested that real-life violent video game play was positively related to aggressive behaviour and delinquency. They also found that laboratory exposure to a graphically violent videogame increased aggressive thoughts and behaviour (2000: 1). They also claimed that the unique dangers of violent videogames included:
Other studies by Anderson and Gentile indicated that videogames have a strong effect on aggression, especially in children because:
However, sceptics of the effects model suggest that studies like these are flawed and biased. A major argument of this group is that these studies are merely based on correlation methods rather than those that prove causality (Goldstein, 2000: 1). Mackay also questions the validity of past research studies. His appraisal of past studies illustrates weak links in certain areas of media effects theory. Specifically, Mackay calls for more complete studies of the issue including approaches that reach beyond the limits posed by laboratory experiments (2002: 48). This highlights a major criticism of current research methods as most are conducted in laboratories or under controlled experimental conditions. Critics suggest that these environments are not representative of real life situations and do not control all factors involved in the process of game playing. Vessey furthers this viewpoint by stating ‘the exact contribution that videogames play in shaping children’s behaviour is virtually impossible to isolate when considered from broader intra-personal and environmental contexts' (2000: 608).
Overall, media effects theory has a long tradition within the cultural studies school of thought. Despite the formulation of many alternative views and models, the effects model has endured through the decades. Springhall suggests that people are fearful of new technologies, such as videogames, because they challenge existing power and governmental processes. This is especially because they are embraced by the young who are a ‘significant audience for violent and sexual imagery’ (1998: 2). This viewpoint may explain the eagerness of certain groups to understand the effects of videogames, especially if they are seen as sources of cultural subversion. Hence, effects theory has played a role in many moral panics over specific video games, censorship regimes and policy decisions.
Computer Games Young Children and Reality
Anderson, C. & Dill, K. (2000) ‘Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviour in the Laboratory and Life,’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 78, no.4, retrieved September 1, 2004, from http://www.apa.org/journals/psp/psp784772.html
Audience Theory (2004) Retrieved September 29, 2004 from </nowiki> http://www.mediaknowall.com/alevkeyconcepts/audience.html
Goldstein, J. (2001) “Does Playing Violent Games Cause Aggressive Behaviour?� Retrieved 8 September 2004, from </nowiki> http://www.culturalpolicy.uchicago.edu/conf2001/papers/goldstein.html
Violent video games: Psychologists help protect children from harmful effects (2004) Retrieved September 29, 2004 from http://www.psychologymatters.org/videogames.html
AmandaTaylor 19:24, 26 Oct 2004 (EST)
