This subject will beneficial for me as it is helping me to build upon my appreciation for mew media and its increasing importance in today's post-modern society. Practically speaking, every job there days in many different industries require there employees to have skills in the new media arena specialising in publishing, advertising or web design, for example. The symantic web space is an example of revolutionary movements that are occuring in the new media industry.
Day, P and Schuler, D. (2004) Community Practice in the Network Society; Local Action/Global Interaction, London: Routledge, ISBN 0415301947.
This book presents a more community-orientated vision of the global network society by focusing on the richness and diversity of alternative network structures. This promotion of more inclusive and participatory pathways to networked societies counteracts dominant ideological paradigms surrounding existing ICT infrastructures that claim that social divisions have actually diminished from the emergence of such ICT and its push on globalisation. The book argues that the familiar amalgam of market-orientated and informal civil libertarian perspectives around the digital divide is not capable of developing effective policies to address the underlying issues behind the digital divide. The focus of this book is not so much geared towards the issues of accessibility and education for universal service. Conversely, it directs its attention to examining the concept of communication as a basic human right and to explore the possibility of policy development for bridging digital divides based around this notion. Day and Schuler’s book recognises that access to advanced communication modalities such as ICT have become more of a fundamental human need as they are increasingly relied upon to administer basic services necessary to maintain adequate standards of living.
Warschauer, M. (2003) Technology and Social Inclusion: Rethinking the Digital Divide, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, ISBN 0262232243.
The purpose of this book is to examine the relationship between information and communication technology (ICT) and social inclusion, specifically referring to the concept of the digital divide. Warschauer suggests that the popular sentiment among theorists that the social problems surrounding the digital divide can be addressed merely through improving access, is problematic. Instead the book emphasises the importance of ‘operatability’ achieved through the provision of adequate resources to developing countries. This combined with a system to address waning technical and literacy skills is seen as a more pragmatic and effective way of reducing the impact of the digital divide. Overall, this article is critical of existing methodologies that tend to over-emphasise the physical presence of computers and connectivity to the exclusion of human and social factors that are more concerned with the meaningful use of ICT. An alternative framework suggested by Warschauer is the intersection of ICT and social inclusion to the extent that individuals, families and communities are able to positively engage within society, controlling their own consumption of information.
Hawisher, G.E and Selfe, C.L. (2000) Global Literacies and the World Wide Web, London: Routledge, ISBN 0415189411.
’Global Literacy’s and the World Wide Web’ provides a critical examination of the established literacy practices and values, and how they are determined by national, cultural and educational contexts. The book effectively resists the romantasized and inaccurate vision of the global oneness and connectivity in relation to new media and ICT. Paradoxically, Hawisher and Selfe encourage new communities to challenge the ‘global village’ myth by drawing from their own unique identity that is influenced by their prospective economic, cultural and historical background, to build upon their understanding of technology and literacy and its integration into emergent ICT. The book reflects that developing nations recently exposed to ICT should integrate these powerful communication tools within their own culture, instead of ostracizing themselves from their own traditions in favour of more palatable and dominant Western cultures. The book also suggests that the main threat comes from the potential of multinational capitalist networks to, in turn, supplant or undermine already fragile economic, cultural and political systems of allegiance caused by the blurring of boundaries and identities beyond their geographical borders.
Persig, K. (2004). “The Information Society�?’ in Rosenberg, K (ed.) The Social Impact of Computers: Third Edition, California: Elsevier Academic Press, pp.62-70
This chapter specifically looks at the role of the government and private sector in ensuring that their respective citizens have access to the Internet and its information capabilities. Persig supports the provision of quality services at affordable rates as well as increased access to advanced telecommunications services with particular attention paid to low income, rural, insular and high-cost areas. The increased availability of advanced resources to schools backed up by legislative mechanisms is also considered a key determinant in narrowing the ‘digital divide’ gap. The chapter also devotes some of its attention to the benefits of schemes directed towards the development of special education students and those in underserved communities. The potential success of such initiatives are depicted in a specific case study looking at the transformation of education in rural America as a result of the introduction of ICT such as computers and the Internet into the students development.
Carvin, A. (2000). “Beyond Access; Understanding the digital divide,�? Keynote conference presented at the NYU Third Act Conference, May 19 2000 (in) Media & Communication Creative Industries Faculty. KCB 295 Virtual Cultures Unit Reader.
This conference conducted by Carvin provides a more comprehensive insight into the underlying issues behind the digital divide. Carvin goes beyond the issue of access and explores the relationship that education and income levels have with this increasing gap. It attempts to bring to light the importance of improved infrastructure and susbsequent development models to help empower those who are lack the education or the facilities to engage positively and meaningfully with ICT in developing counties and sectors of our own communities. Carvin takes into account factors such as literacy, content, educational barriers, language constraints and diversity issues, in attempting to unveil the true nature of ICT and its upholding of dominant power structures. Importantly, Carvin doesn’t simply criticise existing paradigms and their ramifications surrounding the use of ICT. He also draws attention to emergent projects and initiatives aimed towards providing strategic partnerships and incentives for the implementation of training and development programs designed to cater for local communities to interact successfully with ICT.
Tourni, A. (2005). “Bridging the digital divide,�? The Engineer, vol. 6, pp. 22-23.
This article discusses the importance of utilising satellite technologies to bridge the digital divide through the provision of high-speed internet broadband connections to underserved areas at an affordable price. Tourni emphasises the need to take decisive action due to the fact the digital divide is deepening as developing countries struggle to provide even basic telephone services. This is in comparison to developed industrialised nations that continue to roll out broadband telecoms infrastructure, which is some sectors has even become a government priority. The ability for ICT to connect disparate countries and communities to vital and innovative information and communications technologies in areas of education, healthcare, commerce and online governance, is also heavily reliant on the affordability of terminal equipment to connect to this global broadband network. Tourni’s argument is closely aligned with other academic theory in this field, which calls for increased access to ICT as the first step in exposing a significant portion of the global population, especially in under-developed countries, to the information and networking capabilities of ICT.
Law, D. (2004) “Bridging the digital divide: a review of current progress,�? Library Management vol.. 25, Iss. ½, pp. 17-21
This article by Law observes that electronic information is part of an established order of things but that since its infancy stages has created a whole series of wars, accusations and debates concerning what is effectively a new system of scholarly communication is to be organised, managed and funded. This argument is especially rife when you look at the increasing presence of private and government interests on ICT and their supposed alternative decentralised structure as opposed t mass media. Law’s article subsequently looks at the role of important stakeholders such as commercial publishers and their level of responsibility shown concerning civic obligations to make information more accessible. Law considers the notion of an ‘international treaty’ on free trade in scientific and technological information and its potential to organize a fairer and more equitable system for the implementation and dissemination of ICT into society. Importantly, this article starts to look beyond the issue of access and put the issue into context by investigating the role of key stakeholders play in removing or at least diminishing this barrier.
Moss, J. (2002). “Power and the digital divide,�? Ethics and Information Technology vol.4, no.2, pp.159-165
‘Power and the digital divide’ investigates the complexity of the ethical and political dilemmas surrounding the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The impact of centralised data collection, mass communication technologies or the centrality of computer technology behind important social institutions, form the basis of Moss’s argument. The article addresses such issues by firstly considering the types of ‘power relationships’ between people that characterise the dynamic nature ICT and its role in society. Specifically, the article considers how certain technologies operate and the sorts of constraints that they impose on people. Moss hypothesises, to properly appreciate the political impact of some aspects of ICT, especially the digital divide, one needs an account of how power operates that includes more traditional types of power exertion. Whether or not such traditional social practices or institutions continue to establish relations of dominance or disadvantage over people using ICT, is a crucial question that is also put forward. By recognising the social forces at work in determining access to ICT and understanding the severity of various threats posed by the digital divide, Moss argues that it will allow us to focus on the appropriate response to potential inequalities.
James, E. (2001). “Learning to bridge the digital divide,�? The Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Observer Iss. 224, pp.43-45.
This article offers an analysis on the increasing marginalisation between countries, groups and individuals amplified by the introduction of ICT into our global landscape. James argues that the basic factor behind the digital divide is the lack of access to computers and the Internet. The article goes further by suggesting that the problem does not exist solely within the developing countries. Industrial countries are also struggling to cope with increasingly segregated and fragmented cultures that are widening the gap between groups at different educational and income levels. This is raising fears that entire sectors of society may be ostracized because of their inability to understand or afford ICT. To combat this dilemma, the article supports a common academic theory that quality in learning experience requires an increasing presence of effective multimedia learning materials that advocate and forge partnerships between the suppliers and users. James emphasises the important role of governments to broker arrangements between educational ICT developers, suppliers and users both in the public and private sector to promote more education and research, which, so far, have been hampered by economic, beauracratic constraints.
--Dane C Allen 20:12, 11 Aug 2005 (EST)
The issue of bridging the digital divide needs to go beyond the familiar amalgam of market orientated and civil libertarian perspectives that put forth access and education as being the key to worldwide empowerment and engagement with ICT’s. Theorists such as Day and Schuler (2004) believe that the issues surrounding the digital divide need to deeper to examine the concept of communication as a basic human right and to explore the possibility of policy development to substantiate this process. This is especially relevant as access to ICT’s becomes more of a fundamental need as they become increasingly relied upon to administer basic services such as healthcare necessary to maintain adequate standards of living.
Consequently, theorists such as Warschauer (2003) purport that attempting to address the issue of waning technical literacy skills that prohibits social inclusion by simply improving access, is problematic. Current existing methodologies that over-emphasise the physical presence of computers and infrastructure to provide connectivity fail to grasp the importance of encouraging meaningful use of ICT, which can best be achieved through education. This brings up another important consideration in bridging the digital divide which calls for the implementation of alternative frameworks that are more interested in how individuals, families and communities are able to positively engage within society, controlling their own consumption of information. Hawisher and Selfe (2000) argue that new communities should discard the ubiquitous nature of the ‘global village’ myth and should instead draw from their own unique cultural background to build upon their understanding of the role ICT in their prospective societies.
But, empowering developing countries to play more of an autonomous role in their engagement with ICT, will require the unbridled support of both governments and private interests to provide both the infrastructure such as broadband and satellite technology and the terminal equipment needed to ensure connectivity, at an affordable price. At a time when many disparate communities struggle to even have access to basic telephone services compared to industrialised nations that continue to roll out broadband telecoms infrastructure, perhaps it is time that bridging this gap becomes a global priority.
In addition, Law (2004) argues that we need to be more scrupulous regarding the role of important stakeholders such as commercial publishers and their level of responsibility shown concerning civic obligations to make information more accessible to legitimise the Internet’s claim as a decentralised network. James (2001) suggest that perhaps more attention needs to be placed on the complexity of the ethical and political dilemmas surrounding the use of telematics. Specifically, the increasing diffusion of centralised data collection and distribution backed up by mass media frameworks into the fragile and impressionable space that is called the Internet, are raising concerns over the existence of such traditional social practices or structures and whether they are effectively establishing relations of dominance or disadvantage of people using ICT.
--Dane C Allen 11:55, 8 Sep 2005 (EST)
One of the underlying issues surrounding the digital divide is the notion of social inclusion, specifically referring to the meaningful use of Information Communication Technologies (ICT). Popular sentiment among theorists have been leaning towards bridging the digital divide gap by focusing predominantly on issues of access and the subsequent availability of adequate resources and infrastructure. This approach may be problematic as it fails to appreciate the waning levels of technology and literacy skills that are inherent in many developing countries. Instead, it may be more effective to emphasise the importance of ‘operatability’ (link) achieved through the provision of adequate resources that are more importantly supported by educational programs could be considered a more pragmatic way of reducing the impact of the digital divide. There perhaps needs to be more criticism placed on existing methodologies that tend to over-emphasise the physical presence of computers and connectivity to the detriment of human and social factors that can greatly influence the meaningful use of ICT.
Harlin pupports that there must be a stronger commitment to provide better technology access to all populations. Looking at schools for example, administrators must emphasise the benefits of employing such technologies, which is supported my teachers who must understand the need for incorporating these technologies into their daily programs in meaningful ways. Students must commit to learning and employing technologies in different ways while parents need to support the changes and the need for access to technology as well. Keeping in mind the implications of a widening (more complex) digital divide, it is imperative to focus on what can be done if the needs cannot be met. All interested parties must collaborate to ensure that the integration of existing and emergent technologies is performed in a way that is supports the need for adequate education programs at both an administrative and teaching level. Empowering all students for learning and living in the 21 st century has been a goal for stakeholders in the educational process for many years. But many suggest that this generic approach to adopting uniform standards concerning technology integration into communities and schools, has failed to successfully adapt to the more volatile economic and social conditions that exist in less affluent countries. This re-iterates the importance of teachers being able to recognise the needs of students both collectively and individually and how to best utilise the resources available to them to enhance student’s positive engagement with ICT, whether it be in affluent or impoverished communities. The potential result is that teachers and students at all schools and in all types of classrooms will engage in learning activities involving technology that have the potential to enhance student achievement as well as decrease the Digital Divide.
Empowering the developing countries to play more of an autonomous role in the organisation and dispersion of ICT into their respective communities is something that will require the unbridled support of governments capable of working in tandem with private interests. Such collaborations are integral at the top-end to ensure that the necessary infrastructure such as satellite and broadband technology and the terminal equipment needed to establish connectivity, are provided at an affordable price. At a time when many disparate communities struggle to even have access to basic telephone services compared to industrialised nations that continue to roll out broadband telecoms infrastructure, perhaps it is time that bridging this gap becomes a global priority for governments. One of the main concerns is that while low income causes low IT penetration, low penetration may also perpetuate low incomes. This has led many theorists to conclude that developing nations require support through donations of facilities and training in order to facilitate move towards integrating ICT into these disparate communities.
Moreover, the prospect of a growing digital divide between poor and rich countries and hope that ICT’s may produce an opportunity to promote productivity and economic growth have led to a number of initiatives designed to stimulate ICT use in developing countries. While many organisations note that competition and a friendly regulatory environment may be beneficial to ICT development, few of these initiatives and very little research have actually focused on the role of regulation in promoting Internet use. Data collected from the new survey of telecommunications regulators in developing countries combined with publicly available information from the ITU and the World Bank depicted that heavy Internet regulation often correlated with worse outcomes in terms of measuring the access opportunities for ICT in developing countries. In particular, countries that require ISPs to get formal approval before beginning operations have fewer Internet users and Internet hosts, while ISP price regulation is correlated with higher ISP final-user prices. Wallsten therefore suggest that perhaps regulatory controls would be best used to curb increases in costs associated with ICT access in terms of connectivity. The results also suggest that a country's regulatory approach to the Internet and ICTs can have a large impact on its ubiquity throughout the country. Research suggests that reducing entry barriers and promoting competition is likely to yield large increases in the share of developing countries’ populations with access to the Internet and any potential benefits that flow from such access. In other words, removing entry barriers and promoting ISP competition may present a low-cost and non-distortionary way to boost Internet use in developing countries.
