Email Me Linda M Long 17:51, 8 Sep 2004 (EST)
== Bibliography Topic:
Computer and Video Games: Effects on Young Children and their Construction of Reality ==
== Annotated Bibliography ==
=== The Ecstacy (sic) of Communication ===
Baudrillard, J. (1988). The Ecstacy of Communication. Semiotext[e]: USA ISBN 0936756365
This title chapter of Baudrillard’s book is retrospective of his treatised postmodern contributions to media theories. Although written 15 years ago, prior to the proliferation of the internet among the masses, Baudrillard describes notions of communication through simulations, namely a flat “one-dimensional� “scene and mirror� metaphor which he argues is now replaced by “network and screen�, such as the television. The past notion of scene and mirror alienated the observer watching from a distance in the safety of their own environment. However, in the era of mass media the new metaphor of network and screen allows for interaction and access to the network behind the simulation blurring the lines between the observer and participant: reality and hyperreality. This, he states, is when we are indulging in the ecstasy of communication, in all its associated “obscenities�.
In his distinctive metaphorical language, Baudrillard expands these notions, explaining the bipolar positions of “ecstasy� and “passion�. Passion is the subtle, implied, imagined, hidden and protected aspects of communication. Opposing is ecstasy, the narcissistic, the too visible, over-saturation of sensory communication. When in passion we feel we are protected, but as the barrier continually breaks down and lag time becomes non-existent we move to the point where it over saturates. We metaphorically surpass the stage of hysteria, a place of choice, to a state of schizophrenic terror bombarded, with no protection and no choice. Therefore, culminating in the human becoming a “pure screen� continuously open to absorbing all, and resorbing, becoming the interface and resulting in complete disconnection with reality.
=== Computer Games: Youth Culture, Resistant Readers and Consuming Passions ===
Beavis, C. (1998) "Computer Games: Youth Culture, Resistant Readers and Consuming Passions" Australian Association for Research in Education Annual Conference. Deakin University, Adelaide, 29 Nov. - 3 Dec. retrieved 24 July 2004
This article highlights that many past studies are based on assumptions of the nature of youth and childhood, in particular, “effects� research often focus on cultural constructs of violence, aggression, and masculinity, however, neglect to acknowledge that players, all be they children, are already engendered and cultural beings, rather than empty vessels absorbing and digesting the digital texts of new media, such as computer games. These assumptions also shape current research on the “readers� of such text and their reading processes and construction of subjectivity. Past research fails to recognise that players do not only read the text but are actively joined in the construction of meaning through the process of interaction with computer games.
Poststructuralism provides Beavis with a framework to discuss the role of computer games in youth culture, in particular the ease to which they exist in simulated allegories of space and time unlike previous generations, where space and time were restraining boundaries.
Beavis highlights that as research across different disciplines indicates varying constructs of youth and youth culture and subjectivity, and of the nature of reading and role of digital texts, children need to be educated on the nature of engagement with new media to mobilise critical analysis of their surrounding texts. Therefore, creating awareness and empowering a proactive role during their interpretation and creation of meaning of digital texts.
=== Boys and Girls Use of Cognitive Strategy when Learning to Play Video Games ===
Blumberg, F.C., and Sokol, L.K. (2004) Boys and Girls Use of Cognitive Strategy when Learning to Play Video Games, The Journal of General Psychology, vol.131, no.2, retrieved 10 August, 2004.
The purpose of this study was to determine if any differences existed between the cognitive strategies used by boys and girls when learning to play a new video game. The sample group consisted of 46 second-grade children (mean age: 7.4 years old) and 59 fifth-grade children (mean age: 10.5 years old). Both groups were of mixed genders.
The focus of the study was internal versus external learning strategies. Internal strategies are “self-initiated�, that is, relying on one’s own experience of ‘trial and error’, or reading the instructions for guidance. External learning strategies involved “asking others for assistance�. However, findings indicated no significant relationship was found to exist between gender and their use of internal or external learning strategies. But, younger and more frequent players were found to more likely use the internal based strategy of learning from ‘trial and error’, rather than reading the game instructions. Game performance of an individual was not linked to either, differences in gender, or the use of internally based strategies.
The study concluded that previous research indicating a significant relationship between boys reflecting enhanced visual-spatial skills and their frequency of game experience may not necessarily extend to the application of cognitive learning strategies.
=== The Influence of Television and Visual Electronic Media on Brain Development ===
Burke, M.J. (2003) 'The Influence of Television and Visual Electronic Media on Brain Development', Child and Adolescent Behaviour Letter vol.19, no.7, retrieved 10 August, 2004
Burke discusses the effects of over-exposure to visual electronic media (VEM) on brain development of young children, from a psychiatric perspective. She draws on studies that indicate a causal relationship between exposure to VEM such as television, and computer and video games, and “behavioural deterioration�.
Focussing on a case study of a pre-diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 6 year old boy displaying symptomatic behavioural problems of “severe… impulsive aggression without remorse� and “limited peer relations�, Burke explains how she successfully treated the boy with “play therapy� and by reducing his exposure television watching from 3 to 4 hours a day to 4 hours a week. The reduction of television exposure aided in providing him with more opportunities to engage in meaningful behavioural interchanges with his mother and others. Over exposure to television delayed his development of understanding and conveying of attuned and contingent responses as the television does not allow opportunities for the child to develop appropriate responses as actual interaction or feedback can not take place.
Burke concludes with the summation that VEM exposure does not inevitably cause behavioural problems in children due to parents limiting use and lessening exposure by increasing family activities allowing more effective brain development from exposure to a wider variety of experiences and, attuned and contingent parental behaviour. However, overexposure to VEM may cause behaviour symptoms if such interventions are not implemented and VEM is a substantial activity of the child during his, or her, formative years of development.
=== Video Games and Young Players ===
Chandler, Daniel (1994) Video Games and Young Players. retrieved 24 July, 2004.
Chandler uses four main types of video games; 1) arcade games, 2) simulation (strategic) games, 3) adventure games and 4) educational games, to examine various aspects of impact on young players ranging in ages from 5 to 13 years old.
Chandler describes games as gender specific; designed by males and appealing mostly to boys between the ages of 8 and 15 years. These young players are attracted by the rapid pace and animation. Player rewards are intrinsic, rather than extrinsic, and the element of surprise, challenge, and the ability to experience risk without actual physical danger, create motivation. Games also provide players with the ultimate chance to eliminate regret.
Games demand high level of skill, an understanding of the consistent formal, but not moral, rules and boundaries. However, the virtual game space contrasts with the less predictable real world where such ultimate chances to eliminate regret do not exist, nor does the opportunity exist where such young children have such a strong sense of control. Chandler suggests that these contrasts may lead to impatience with the messier reality of the real world.
Chandler also adds that parents are often excluded from their children’s gaming experiences and culture due to the rapid advances in game technology.
=== Video and Computer Games: Effect on Children and Implications for Health Education ===
Dorman, S.M. (1997) "Video and Computer Games: Effect on Children and Implications for Health Education," Journal of School Health, vol.67, no.4
Dorman discusses the many implications of using computer games as a learning tool for school aged children. He attempts to encompass both positive and negative implications, describing potential negative effects of video games referring to seemingly uncommon cases of “nintendinitis� and “pathological preoccupation with video games� as well as more common effects such as “video game induced seizures� and both anti-social and pro-social effects of consuming video games. However, throughout the article he remains optimistic about the role of computer games in the education of children and youth. He describes various implications such as improved spatial visualisation skills, which are highly developed in high achievers of mathematics and science.
Dorman also argues that computers provide limitless opportunities in experiential learning. These are particularly useful in the simulation of high-risk situations, such as decisions regarding drug use. The simulated environment of a computer game allows children to explore the potential effects of various decisions in a relatively low-risk environment of a game.
Also discussed are insignificant findings in numerous studies on relationships between exposure to video games and; 1) behavioural aspects of children such as increased aggression of boys and/or girls; 2) reduced time spent reading; 3) gender specific differences between girls and boys.
Dorman does, however, state one noticeable impact as the subtle shift of learning expectations of children away from traditional teaching and learning methods towards “edutainment� that is perceived as “fun� by children.
In conclusion, Dorman strongly advocates the use purpose designed computer games as offering limitless opportunities in educating children and youth.
=== Computer Games as Part of Children's Culture ===
Frommes, Johannes (2003) Computer Games as Part of Children's Culture International Journal of Computer Game Research. Volume 3, Issue 1. retreived 29 July, 2003
This article begins by explaining that parents and teachers tend to view new media culture from their own perspectives and experiences that are based on a “protestant ethic� which condones a rationalised and self controlled lifestyle. This has long fuelled scepticism and ongoing debate about the benefits versus drawbacks of children and computer and video games. However, today’s children in a postmodern society are growing up experiencing a different culture in which gaming is a significant part of, and where they are the experts.
Based on this premise, Fromme’s study of over 1000 children from 7 to 14 years old aims to determine their “computer gaming cultures� by investigating usage behaviour and preferences. Findings indicate that computer games are of less importance to children than other more traditional activities such as playing outside with others, sporting activities and listening to music. However, significant gender differences include that after the first three preferences of both genders, girls choose reading as a fourth preference and boys choose playing video/computer games. Gaming only seemed to be important to children for occupying them during periods of time when they considered they had nothing else to do, disproving the hypotheses that computer games replace traditional activities.
Another finding shows that children mostly rely on information about which games are ‘good’ games from their peers, some from other media (such as television) and the least information from their parents, especially their mothers. Other than screening the choice of games bought and enforcing time limits, most parents take a passive non-positive role in their children’s gaming cultures.
=== Zero to Six: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers and Preschoolers ===
The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation "Zero to Six: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers and Preschoolers" presented at KFF, Barbara Jordan Conference Centre, Washington, D.C. 28 Oct. retrieved 24 July 2004
This recent report states findings of research into young children, from 0 to 6 years old, and documents their media use of television, video games, computers, music, reading and videos/DVD’s. The American study surveyed over 1000 parents and enquired about when children began using different forms of media, access to different forms of media in the home and the amount of time spent using each form of media.
Computer use and the playing of computer games are both categories researched in this study, including watching television, watching DVDs and videos. Comparisons were made between these activities and others such as playing outside, reading or being read to and listening to music, however, during a typical day playing video games and using a computer ranked as consuming the two lowest amounts of time of all activities studied. The study does, however, highlight the high number of these young children who have used a computer (48%), and have played video games (30%). The report also highlights these children as “actively� consuming media, which involves children “hopping up to the computer by themselves� (33%), “loading their own CD-ROMs� (23%) and requesting particular websites “while surfing the net� (12%).
Major findings of the research are centred on the consumption of television, rather than computers and computer games. In particular, findings indicated that children are using television from as young as 2 months old, which is at odds with the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendation of children from ages between 0 and 2 years old to completely avoid consuming television. The other major finding was the “wide� consumption of media by the 0 to 6 year sample group.
Recommendations include more effective education of parents about restricting television consumption until the age of 2 years. Also, recommending that parents can effectively control media consumption by enforcing time limits, switching off the television when no-one is watching and removing televisions from children’s bedrooms.
=== Video Games - The Necessity of Incorporating Video Games as Part of Constructivist Learning ===
Hostetter, Obe (2002) "Video Games - The Necessity of Incorporating Video Games as Part of Constructivist Learning" retrieved 21 July 2003
Hostetter draws in his teaching experience to argue that video games should be used in education to appeal to the learning needs of the new “game generation� of children. The many positive educational capacities out way the negative aspect of possible gaming addiction that can be addressed by responsible monitoring of time spent playing video games.
Hostetter highlights the positives of each of Prenky’s ten cognitive traits and explains how children of the game generation have different learning needs than previous generations, due to their accustomisation with video games from such young ages.
Hostetter argues that video games have potential to provide an optimum learning environment for the game generation to learn cognitive skills as well as content material. Hostetter also suggests simple guidelines to help teachers, parents and administrators choose “good educational software�.
=== Children and Computers: New Technology - Old Concerns ===
Wartella, E.A. & Jennings, N. (2000) "Children and Computers: New Technology - Old Concerns The Future of Children: Children and Computer Technology, vol.10, no.2, retrieved 24 July 2004
This article states the current debates about computers and their positive and negative effects on children, between 8 and 15 years old, stating that the current pro and anti arguments surrounding computers and children raise the same issues that have been raised in the past with other new technologies. Positive issues of educational benefits and negative issues of exposure to inappropriate commercial, sexual and violent content were all raised with the introduction of films in the early 1900’s, radio in the 1920’s and television in the 1940’s. However, greater interactivity has heightened both sides of the debate in terms of computers a new medium.
However, Wartella and Jennings, base their argument on using past implementations of new technology as a predictive framework of expectations to better understand current new technologies. As a result contemporary advocates and critics of children and computers can benefit from employing a hermeneutic circle (therapy theory approach) of gaining a more complete understanding by reading texts in circular motion rather than linear, that is, from beginning to end and from end to beginning, before constructing meaning. Therefore, we can utilise historical impacts of new media technologies and apply that knowledge to better deal with issues surrounding the introduction of current and future new technologies.
Wartella and Jennings conclude by emphasising responsible design of content stating that children can reap the many benefits of new media if content is carefully considered and optimally designed to positively enhance the emotional and cognitive development of children.
== Additional References: ==
=== Allegories of Space: The Question of Spatiality in Computer Games===
Aarseth, E. (1998) 'Allegories of Space: The Question of Spatiality in Computer Games' (Draft)
NB: This paper is a draft only. I am currently in the process of seeking permission from the author to use the paper as a reference in my research proposal.
=== Simulacra and Simulations ===
Baudrillard, J. (1991) 'Simulacra and Simulations', in Poster, M. (ed.), Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings, Polity Press: UK, pp.166-184 ISBN 0745605869
=== The Pleasures of Immersion and Engagement: Schemas, Scripts, And the Fifth Business ===
Douglas, J., and Hargadon, A. (2001) 'The Pleasures of Immersion and Engagement: Schemas, Scripts, And the Fifth Business' Digital Creativity retrieved 10 August, 2004
=== Thick & Thin: 'Direct Manipulation' and the Spatial Regimes of Human-Computer Interaction ===
Harpold, T. (2001) 'Thick & Thin: 'Direct Manipulation' and the Spatial Regimes of Human-Computer Interaction' retrieved 10 August, 2004
=== Playing and Gaming ===
Kampmann Walther, B. (2003) 'Playing and Gaming: Reflections and Classifications', International Journal of Computer Game Research, Vol 3, Issue 1,
=== The Production of Space ===
Lefevre, H. (1991) 'The Production of Space', UK: Blackwell. ISBN 0631181776
=== Video Games: Perpective, Point-of-View and Immersion ===
Taylor, L.N. (2002) 'Video Games: Perpective, Point-of-View and Immersion', Thesis presented to The Graduate School of the University of Florida.
NB: This paper has a 2002 copyright. I am currently in the process of seeking permission from the author to use the paper as a reference in my research proposal.
=== The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit ===
Turkle, S. (1984) 'The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit', New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671468480
