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Mossberger, K., Tolbert, C.J., and Stansbury, M. (2003) Virtual Inequality: Beyond the Digital Divide, Washington: Georgetown University Press, pp.1-14, ISBN 0-87840-999-8.
The chapter redefines the digital divide as not only ‘patterns of unequal access to information technology based on income, race, ethnicity, gender, age, and geography’ but also proposes that the divide can be categorised as including an access divide, skills divide, economic opportunity divide and democratic divide.
The chapter aims to address the legitimacy of the digital divide as a problem requiring policy attention. Government intervention is supported by the authors as necessary action because of the uses of information technology as tools for both participation in the economy and political arena.
Carvin, A. (2000) “Beyond Access: Understanding the Digital Divide,‿ paper presented to NYU Third Act Conference, 19th May.
Carvin’s address was made to U.S educators on the topic of the digital divide, its causes, and possible solutions. The causes listed included differences in income and education levels, and to a lesser extent, racial and demographic differences. Government statistics were used to support his argument. Carvin stressed that the digital divide is more than an issue of access, with literacy and content factors also contributing to the divide. He stressed the role of the audience as educators in narrowing the divide through improved literacy and the integration of technology into lessons. Increased funding from the US Department of Education was suggested. Literacy included basic, functional, technological and informational, to ensure that net users are not only technologically competent, but can also judge the value of information presented to them on the internet. Carvin noted four specific barriers to the quality of content for underservered communites: 1) Lack of local information- most information is provided for localities with higher population; 2) Literacy barriers- much is written for the more educated net user; 3) Language barriers- much of the net language is in English, which impacts on foreign interest and could lead to cultural imperialism; 4) Lack of cultural diversity- different groups have different needs in relation to content and its presentation.
Carvin advocates the use of school computers by community members after hours to build their technology skills and create content relevant to the community’s needs, whilst also improving their job prospects and ability to attract business to the community.
Thomas, G. and Wyatt, S. (2000) “Access is not the only problem: Using and controlling the internet‿, in Wyatt, S., Henwood, F., Miller, N. and Senker, P. (eds.) Technology and In/equality: Questioning the Information Society, London: Routledge, pp. 21-46, ISBN 0-415-23023-3.
This chapter evaluates the extent and severity of the digital divide, stating ‘access is not the only problem.’ The chapter also addresses the existing and potential inequalities inherent in the present structure of the internet and ways these may be intensified or diminished. It is suggested that inequalities in consumption patterns are not only a function of place, race, education, income and gender, but are also ‘bound up with the structures of the production of the internet itself’.
The view that internet adoption will continue and accelerate due to the ‘trickle down' effect is challenged. This means that the technology is expensive initially but becomes cheaper over time. Three fallacies of this theory are proposed:
1) Growth is not proportionately distributed, with marked differences between countries.
2) Continued growth is not assured. It is proposed that ‘maybe the usefulness and pleasure of the internet is not for everyone.’
3) After the old IT product ‘trickles down’ it is likely a new one would have been invented, with an image of high status which restarts the divide.
For digital divide policy decisions, this strategy is suggested: ‘If access to a previously scarce resource is increasing year on year, is it not better to wait and see at what level the rate of increase starts to slow down and only then take action to bridge the gap between the ‘natural’ level of access of provided by the market and the level deemed socially desirable?’ The authors propose that inequality may always be present online, but the right kinds of intervention at many levels can tackle the problem of access and content.
A.C. Powell III (2001) “Falling for the Gap: Whatever Happened to the Digital Divide?‿, in B.M. Compaine (ed.) The Digital Divide: Facing a Crisis or Creating a Myth?, Cambridge: MIT Press, pp. 309-314, ISBN 0-262-53193-3.
Powell’s chapter title parody suggests he is critical of the U.S. Department of Commerce 1999 report: ‘Falling through the net: Toward digital inclusion’ which gave information and statistics about the digital divide in the US and those affected. The study attracted widespread media attention, claiming the divide between those at highest and lowest educational levels increased 25% and divide between those at highest and lowest income levels grew 29%. The findings of this study are regularly quoted in literature concerning the digital divide.
He disagrees with the general consensus by policy makers and the ‘digerati’ that there is a broad and widening gap between white and minority Americans. Whilst this may have been accurate in the mid 1990’s, he argues that this ‘familiar claim’ is based on old information and criticises the Government survey for poor research design. The survey design was flawed in that it only asked if respondents owned a modem, and only took into account people’s internet access at home, without asking if respondents accessed the internet at any other place, such as school or work. Powell argued that many people, himself included, regularly access the internet but do not own a computer. He also attacks the media for accepting the results at face value, mentioning that few journalists questioned its validity. The results and subsequent media attention put pressure upon Government departments to address the problem, with billions of dollars earmarked to provide access for minorities who were already increasing their presence on the internet (Asian Americans actually had the highest levels of internet penetration). Clayton believes that it is the Native American minority who are truly disadvantaged, a group not covered in the federal report.
Compaine, B.M. (ed.) (2001) "Declare the War Won", in The Digital Divide: Facing a Crisis or Creating a Myth?, Cambridge: MIT Press, pp. 315-335, ISBN. 0-262-53193-3.
Compaine’s chapter addresses the forces and trends shaping the rate of information technology adoption. He lists five trends that have seen adoption rates grow:
1) A rapid decrease in costs as the power of hardware increases (Moore’s Law);
2) Improved ease of use;
3) Increased availability of ISP access points;
4) A decrease in internet access costs;
5) Network externalities: a perceived increase in value of the technology as more users adopt it.
Compaine addresses the commonly held perceptions of the digital divide and provides arguments against them. He does not see the digital divide as a crisis, more of a ‘temporary and normal process’ associated with new media. The rural poor are often seen as more disadvantaged than their urban counterparts, but Compaine argues that they receive economic benefits relating to cheaper costs of living. For example, telecommunications charges are subsidised by urban customers so that each pays the same access rate, despite the high costs of servicing rural communities. Therefore the urban poor are at a comparative disadvantage. Little attention is paid to voluntary non-users, for whom no amount of government subsidised access will prompt them online until they see a personal benefit in doing so. Compaine writes that the number of voluntary non-users is far larger than that of cost inhibited non-users. Compaine is also critical of schools who ‘scramble’ for government ‘wiring’ funds but do not adequately integrate the technology into the curricula to take full advantage of its networking and information capabilities. Comapine reasons that as prices drop and capabilities increase for technology, underservered schools can become connected for less cost than ‘cutting edge’ schools. Compaine believes that the digital divide will disappear on its own, as cost, natural acculturation and growing availability take their course. He believes that government should wait until the adoption curve flattens before making assumptions about the extent of the divide, and only then take action to address the ‘digital crevice’ that remains.
Hanrahan, T. (2001) “This Internet Start-Up Looks to Conquer an Online Divide‿, in B.M. Compaine (ed.) The Digital Divide: Facing a Crisis or Creating a Myth?, Cambridge: MIT Press, pp.293-298, ISBN 0-262-53193-3.
This chapter profiled the work of Elizabeth Stock, the manager of a not-for-profit internet start-up: ‘Computers for Youth,’ just one of the many private initiatives attempting to address the digital divide in the U.S. Corporate contributors donate machines, software, low cost internet access, warehousing space and funding that Stock distributes to schools that have shown academic potential and commitment.
Stock shares the notion that the digital divide is not merely an access issue; therefore extensive training and ongoing technical support is provided to improve the functional and technological literacy skills of participants. Ongoing discounted net access fees are arranged for participants in order to increase the sustainability of the project.
Stock sees the digital divide as attributed to mainly racial and income factors, as it is predominately poor African American and Hispanic children who are selected as candidates. Stock’s approach differs from the school and library access initiatives of the US government because of the emphasis in providing constant access at home, where the whole family can familiarise themselves with information technology. The desired outcome is that the training received will equip them with the skills required to create online content relevant to their needs and enable them to participate in social and economic networks online.
Taylor, W. and Jewell, R.D. (2003) “Progress Toward Establishing Community Networks in Regional Queensland‿, in Marshall, S., Taylor, W., and Yu, X. (eds.) Closing the Digital Divide: Transforming Regional Economies and Communities with Information Technology, Westport, CT: Praeger, pp. 195-211,
ISBN 1-56720-602-6.
The chapter gave a framework for a community informatics approach to bridging the digital divide in regional areas and outlined two projects undertaken in regional Queensland to establish online community networks. Community informatics is defined as 'the use of information technology products and services for community practice'.
The Faculty of Informatics and Communication at Central Queensland University and Rockhampton and Mackay local governments embarked upon a research project aiming to address the low adoption rate of internet technology in the area (when compared to national averages).
The objectives included promoting the use of technology to aid community development; addressing the sense of isolation felt by people living in regional areas; and providing an easy to use web-portal where local information could be accessed and e-business opportunities created.
Rothman’s (2000) seven factors for a successful community development approach were quoted:
1) A baseline of capacity within the community;
2) Relatively simple tasks to achieve the goal;
3) Goal achievement through small scale projects;
4) Community commitment;
5) Common interest;
6) Tangible benefits;
7) Predictable benefits outweighing the costs.
The authors see the digital divide as being addressed most effectively by collaborating with ‘time rich’ community members as well as local government to ensure content is relevant and easy to access, and any barriers to adoption (perceived or actual) are addressed.
Wagstaff, J. (2004) “WI-FI is Aiming for the Masses‿ Far Eastern Economic Review vol.167, iss. 24, pp. 38-41, ISBN 00147591.
Wagstaff reports on the use of Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) in developing countries to bridge the digital divide. These areas are often lacking in basic infrastructure, so the installation of an expensive cable network is not a priority for government.
Now, resourceful entrepreneurs and volunteers are enabling Wi-Fi networks to be created and expanded through unorthodox means. For example: in Cambodia, a motorbike equipped with a computer and Wi-Fi access can upload email messages from a school computer when in range of the antenna stuck on the village school wall.
In this instance infrastructure was the major impediment to internet access and adoption; Wi-Fi’s introduction in these areas solved that problem. The adoption rate of the internet was high because the villagers could see a use for the technology and could integrate it into their routines. The internet allows them to sell traditional textiles online; research the market prices at neighbouring villages to get the best price for their crops; provide a cheap telephone link to eachother using voice over internet (VoIP); and access to medical and government information.
In urban areas such as Jakarta, the ‘last mile’ gap (connection between local provider and end user) thwarted internet access. Although cellular phones are plentiful, fixed lines are expensive and suffer poor connections. The last mile is being bypassed by Wi-Fi which is enabling cheap and reliable internet access across Jakarta.
The disadvantages of Wi-Fi are that antennas must be within sight of eachother. Vegetation, curvature of the earth and construction can interfere with connections. The wi-fi mast is also tall and vunerable to storms.
Legal problems include strict limitations on VoIP applied by telecommunications companies amid concerns over loss of business. Also, Wi-Fi networks are illegal in some countries: defence officials have dismantled some projects citing security concerns.
Wagstaff believes that Wi-Fi technology can narrow the digital divide in developing and underservered first world countries.
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