Video games have changed dramatically since their humble beginnings. From Pong to Final Fantasy XI, video games have evolved into a multi-million dollar industry that rivals the media giants of film and television. In 2004, Sony has sold over 70 million Playstation 2 consoles worldwide. This number of units alone is estimated by ZDNet (2004) to eclipse total sales revenues of most hollywood blockbusters on opening night.
From the ping-pong games of the MIDI decades to the violent thrillers and fantasy epics of current day, games have undergone an incredibly evolution in barely more than four decades. But just how did video games become such a immense cultural force?
Contents |
There has been much controversy over who created the first video game. William Higinbotham, Ralph Baer and Nolan Bushnell all vie for this title. In 1958, Higinbotham released the unpatented Tennis for Two - although this is in fact a computer game frequently mistaken for a video game. In fact, it is Ralph Baer who creates the first video game in 1951 when he devises the idea of game-playing on television sets and starts building prototypes. In late 1966, Baer invents The Chase Game - a game that consisted of two squares chasing each other.
In 1972, Nolan Bushnell creates Atari and Pong. Pong becomes the world's first arcade hit. Borrell (2001) documents that "within 18 months of starting, Atari had sold 35 000 machines, [and possesses] two buildings and 150 employees." By 1978, Atari has matured into a $400 million company (By 1983, Atari has sold between 8000 to 10,000 coin-operated Pong systems.)
Unfortunately for Bushnell and Atari, Ralph Baer of Magnavox already possesses a patent over Pong's variety of gameplay. Magnavox goes to court and sues Atari, eventually forcing Atari to pay a $70,000 settlement for the use of their patent.
Also in 1972, Magnavox releases the Odyssey home console. Designed by Ralph Baer, the console becomes affectionately known as the "Brown Box" and plays ball-and-paddle games and target shooting games. Unlike later conventional platforms, the Odyssey is battery operated.
In 1975, Microsoft is established. Microsoft eventually goes on to become the world's largest computer software company.
In 1976, Bushnell sells Atari to Warner Communications for an estimated $28 - $32 million. Bushnell later leaves the company in 1978. "While part of Warner, Atari achieved its greatest success, selling millions of Atari 2600 consoles, and at its peak, it accounted for one third of Warner's annual income and became the fastest-growing company in history in the United States (at the time)" (Wikipedia, 2004a).
In 1977, the video game industry crashes. Many attribute this industry break-down to the market saturation of Pong games and Pong clones. Herz (1997: 15) states that "store shelves became soggy with Pong clones, which are summarily dumped at fire sale prices. Fairchild and RCA become extinct as home console manufacturers". Luckily, while clone manufacturers go bankrupt, Atari manages to survive.
Later in 1977, Nintendo releases the Color TV Game 4 and 6 (home consoles), followed by the Color TV Game 15 in 1978. These releases cement Nintendo's presence as a heavyweight in the industry - and as possible future threat to Atari.
In 1978, Apple releases the Apple 2 which provides one of the first viable platforms for computer gaming. The Apple 2 home console is so powerful that the movie special effects for Tron were generated on one of them.
In 1979, Sega is still in its infancy - it is not until the 80's when Sega becomes a leader in the video game industry. Nonetheless, Sega shows remarkable promise with the release of the Monaco GP arcade game. Also in 1979, a unniversity student, Roy Trubshaw, creates the first MUD (Multi User Dungeon) (Kent, 2001). MUD's have arguably inspired many fantasy, dungeon-based games of today like Zork.
The 1980s marked a large transformation in the history of video games. In 1980, Namco released the Pac-Man arcade game which went on to become a "worldwide phenomenon [that] shattered the popular conventions set in the field by Space Invaders" (Wikipedia, 2004c). Atari releases "Battlezone" - an arcade game so succintly programmed that it eventually is used for US military training. Additionally, Williams Electronic's releases the classic "Defender".
Throughout the 1980s Nintendo and Sega go on to surpass Atari's success, releasing a range of games and consoles that establish them as rivaling-leaders in the video game industry. In 1981, Nintendo releases Donkey Kong, which to this day is still extremely popular. Other releases of the decade include Radioscope, Super Mario Brothers and Metroid. Konami releases the unique and somewhat morbid "Frogger".
In 1982, Milton Bradley releases the Microvision console while Bally releases the cult favourite "Tron". Sports games are revolutionzed with Namco's release of "Pole Position". Sinclair Research releases the spectrum home computer, which eventually becomes another reliable and popular computer game platform.
The video game industry experiences a second, greater crash in 1983, after the sudden bankrupcy of a several video game companies. Herz (1997: 19) states that "awash in third-party cartridges, consumers became unable to distinguish the pearls and the dross and head straight for the sale bins, forcing even high-quality games into a viscious cycles of discoutning and loss". On a lesser note, 1983 sees the release of the Commodore 64 home computer and the one-on-one arcade unit.
1985 sees the release of Alexey Pajitnov's globe-stomping "Tetris". Additionally, Nintendo releases the NES while Commodore launches the Amiga computer.
In 1986, Nintendo releases the NES which outsells all other competition in America ten-fold. Sega releases the Sega Master System and Atari releases the 7800 console. The Legend of Zelda debuts on consoles and helps to shape adventure/fantasy games.
In 1987, "Maniac Mansion" by Lucasarts redefines adventure games. Indeed, it opens the subgenre of today's exisiting Point-And-Click-Adventure-Games. Squaresoft's Final Fantasy debuts in Japan.
1988 sees the release of the Sega Megadrive in Japan. Atari creates Tengen, a development unit for NES games.
1989 marks the release of hand-held consoles, namely Atari's Lynx and Nintendo's Game Boy. The Sega Genesis is released in America. Maxis's SimCity is released. SimCity is an culture-shaking simulation that goes on to redefine the term 'real-time'. A trend is set for user 'map making'.
As Leonard Herman documents in Phoenix: The Fall & Rise of Videogames, videos games have undergone an unsteady evolution in the eighties. However, even with the industry crash of 1983, the eighties sees a strong pickup in teenage gamers - a demographic that arguably becomes the lifeblood of the industry. By the end of the eighties one thing is clear: video games are being reborn.
In the early nineties, the PC was but a shy contender in the gaming realm. Wave upon wave of consoles poured out from Japan. For a large portion of the nineties, SEGA and Nintendo dominated the industry with releases such as the Super Famicom (Nintendo) and the SEGA Megadrive (Planet Dreamcast, 2003).
1990 is a stunning year for Nintendo as Final Fantasy and the Super Nintendo are released. Nintendo’s Super Mario 3 becomes the all-time bestselling cartridge game. The world’s first graphics accelerator chip (the “86c911�) begins integration in consoles while SEGA’s Megadrive develops ground-breaking 360˚ graphics (IGN, 2002).
A year later, SEGA games start appearing on CD-ROM's (in Japan) while the Nintendo game Zero Wing introduces the phrase “All your base are belong to us.� Also in 1991, Microprose releases "Civilization" a stunning real-time game of non-linear paths in history.
In 1992, two of the first fighting arcade game successes are released - Street Fighter II and Midway’s Mortal Kombat. Mortal Kombat stirs tremendous moral panic worldwide. Many consider Midway’s success to be a watershed moment in the history of violent games as fighting-style violence is discovered to be an actual selling point (Herman, 1997). That same year, Tandy releases the first Internet console (the VIS), however due to technical difficulties and low demand it never quite catches on (Herman, Horwitz, Kent & Miller, 2001).
A year after Mortal Kombat, SEGA’s 1993 Night Trap causes greater panic worldwide. Featuring scantily clad women and gratuitous violence, Night Trap prompts an American senate review of violent games that threatens to remove all dubious games stateside. However, senatorial demands later softened into an industry wide ratings scheme. (Night Trap also affects Australian classification of violent games in the form of Australia’s Senate Review.) Fighting games like SEGA’s virtual fighter begin to populate arcades in greater numbers.
America’s Entertainment Software Rating Board is formed in 1994. The first violent game to fall under this new regulation is idSoftware’s DOOM, a revolutionary first-person shooter. However, violence is far from a trend in 1994. This is proven when Myst, possibly the most esoteric videogame ever made, becomes one of the bestselling videogames of all time. It is discovered that a large portion of Myst’s success is due to a considerable female 13-30 demographic. Developers like Maxis start to acknowledge wider demographics with products marketed to wide audiences (i.e. SimCity 2). As the gaming community matures, these examples highlight many untapped markets (Herman, Horwitz, Kent & Miller, 2001).
By 1995, Sony’s Playstation begins to pull the console market away from the grip of Nintendo and SEGA. In response, SEGA launches the SEGA Saturn and the SEGA TV Channel which allows subscribers to receive games via cable. SEGA also releases “Daytona USA�, one of the most popular sport titles in videogame history. The period of 1995 and beyond is sometimes termed the “Next Generation�, as hardware and software developed at an intense speed, resulting in incredible advances in realism and technology (Sellers, 2001).
In 1996, “Tomb Raider’s� Lara Croft becomes a cultural icon, setting a trend in character marketability. Also in 1996, Nintendo launches the Gameboy pocket and the N64. The innocuous Tamagotchi explodes in popularity and captures the hearts of children and the cover of TIME magazine. The DigiPen Institute of Technology becomes the first university to offer degrees in videogame development while the British Academy of Film and Television Arts creates an award category for games. At their finest, games are beginning to be acknowledged as a unique art form. Poole (2000) estimates that most gamers have adopted the mouse in 1996 and this peripheral allows new aesthetics (Laramee, 2002). For example, more options can be inserted in menus as the mouse can move fluidly and accurately over large screens.
In 1997, Sony releases Playstation development code for PC’s while the world’s first computer emulator for Nintendo games (“ZSNES�) surfaces on the internet. These developments mark console crossovers. The PC is slowly emerging as a standardized platform in comparison to the short-lived lines of isolated consoles (i.e. Atari’s “Jaguar� and the “Commodore 32�) (Kent, 2001).
In 1998, SEGA’s Dreamcast is released. Ultra-violent PC-game “Half-Life� (Sierra) debuts worldwide. While most console games of the early nineties were produced in Japan, 1998 sees America capture the PC market with an incredibly strongest PC-game development sector (comprised of companies like Sierra and Interplay.) Also in 1998, role-playing game “Baldur’s Gate� is awarded “Game Of The Year� by various magazines for outstanding efforts in narrative and design. Baldur’s Gate's fantasy epic becomes one of the greatest examples of a strong narrative within a game.
In April 1999, two students, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, shoot thirteen people at the Columbine High School of Colorado before committing suicide. It is speculated that violent videogames (among other things like violent movies) were a factor in the Columbine shootings. Both students were seemingly obsessed with games like DOOM, though it is impossible to establish strong correlations between violent videogames and violent actions (Freedman, 2001). The research on the effects of video violence on children is varied.
In 1999, online fantasy, “Everquest�, debuts. Additionally, two American teenagers release the “Counter-Strike� mod for Half-Life, setting a trend in ‘modding’ - the unofficial modification of games by players.
In 2000, Maxis’s “The Sims� becomes the all-time bestselling video game in history (toppling Myst). The Sims not only revolutionizes videogame simulation interfaces but becomes one of the most accessible videogames in history, conquering an even spread of demographics. Also in 2000, online multiplayer games begin to develop a presence as 150,000 join “Ultima Online� (PC) and 300,000 join “Phantasy Star� (Dreamcast). The world of violent videogames hits a critical point with online 'PK’ing’ or ‘player-killing’. Gamers are no longer battling each other one on one or battling against a computer simulation - the capacity for peer-to-peer violence has developed online. Everquest’s has PK-enabled servers while “Diablo 2� refines tournament-style PK’ing with “Battlenet�.
In 2001, Microsoft released the “X-Box�, a console with an inbuilt DVD player, broadband and 8GB disk. Meanwhile, Playstation 2 is launched in Japan and sells over a million copies less than a week. LionHead's “Black and White� creature simulation makes outstanding bounds in character ‘AI’ (artificial-intelligence).
In 2003, video games become a 10 billion dollar industry. The offworld economy of Everquest - composed of things like character auctions on eBay - now eclipses the Bulgaria’s economy. Multiplayer games have come into their own. The Sims online debuts in 2003 while average multiplayer game populations are in excess of 100,000. Also in 2003, small games studios are featured in PC Gamer magazine’s mid-year ‘industry spotlight’. WIRED magazine speculates that small companies like Spiderweb Software are now settling in a “small but albeit commercially viable videogame niche�. Spiderweb’s Gene Forge garners critical praise while selling several thousand copies.
By 2004, newcomer Final Fantasy XI possesses over half a million users while Everquest peaks just below that figure.
As MMORPG’s and Gene Forge prove, it is evident that the gaming world has increased to a scale large enough to accommodate a wealth of different products and experiences. Additionally, it should be noted that video game demographics appear to be slowly evening out over the decades as more women begin to pickup game titles (as The Sims exemplifies) and as older demographics swell up (ie. As 70’s teenage gamers who into today’s 30+ demographic)(Wardrip-Fruin, 2004).
Video games are evolving in realism and technological artistry with every passing year. From the days of Pong to current day MMORPGs, video games present an ever growing universe of exciting new worlds to discover. To quote a phrase from Microsoft 98’s techno-utopian desktops: “Where do you want to go today?�
Notable videogame systems:
1972 - Atari arcade machines
1972 - Odyssey
1977 - ColourTV Game 4
1978 - Apple 2
1982 - Spectrum home computer
1983 - Commodore 64 Home computer
1985 - Amiga
1988 - SEGA MEGADRIVE (Japan)
1989 - Gamboy
1990 - Super Famicom
1990 - SNK’s Neo Geo
1990 - SEGA MEGADRIVE (Europe)
1991 - Super Nintendo
1992 - SEGA CDROM Console
1993 - Atari Jaguar
1993 - Nintendo Super Metroid
1993 - Commodore 32
1994 - Playstation (Japan)
1995 - Playstation (America)
1995 - SEGA Saturn
1995 - Colour Gameboy
1996 - Gameboy pocket
1996 - N64
1998 - Dreamcast
2001 - XBOX
References
Borrell, J. (2001) 'Still playing after all these years', Upside, vol.13, iss.10, pp.110-116.
Freedman, J. (2001) Evaluating the Research on Violent Video Games, Toronto: University of Toronto, retrieved August 2, 2004, from http://culturalpolicy.uchicago.edu/conf2001/papers/freedman.html
Herman, L. (1997) Phoenix: The Fall & Rise of Videogames, New Jersey: Rolenta Press. ISBN 0964384825
Herman, L., Horwitz, J., Kent, S., & Miller, S. (2001) Gamespot :// History of Video Games, retrieved 6 August, 2004, from http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/
Herz, J. (1997) Joystick Nation: How videogames gobbled our money, won our hearts and rewired our minds, London: Abacus. ISBN 0349107238
IGN (2002) Salute to SEGA: Cool Moments In SEGA History, retrieved 5 August, 2004, from http://dreamcast.ign.com/articles/090/090539p1.html?fromint=1
Kent, S. (2001) The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokemon--The Story Behind the Craze That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World, Los Angeles: Prima Lifestyles. ISBN 0761536434
Laramee, F. (2002) Game Design Perspectives, Hingham: Charles River Media. ISBN 1584500905
Planet Dreamcast (2003) Sega History, retrieved 6 August, 2004, from http://www.planetdreamcast.com/about/sega/
Pong Story (2004) Pong Story, retrieved 10 August, 2004, from http://www.pong-story.com
Poole, S. (2000) Trigger Happy : Videogames and the Entertainment Revolution, New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1559705396
Select Committee on Community Standards Relevant to the Supply of Services Utilizing Electronic Technologies (1993). Report on video and computer games and classification issues, Canberra: The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, ISBN 0642197822
Sellers, J. (2001) Arcade Fever : The Fan's Guide to The Golden Age of Video Games, Philadelphia: Running Press Book Publishers. ISBN: 0762409371
Wardrip-Fruin, N. (Ed.) First Person : New Media as Story, Performance, and Game, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 0262232324
Wikipedia (2004a) Atari, retrieved 6 August, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari
Wikipedia (2004b) Nolan Bushnell, retrieved 6 August, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nolan_Bushnell
Wikipedia (2004c) Pac-Man, retrieved 7 August, 2004, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac_Man
Wolf, M. (ed.) The Medium of the Video Game, Texas: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292791488
Wolf, M. (Ed.) The Video Game Theory Reader, London: Routledge. ISBN 0415965799
ZDNet UK (2004) PS2 sales surpass 70 million, retrieved 4 August, 2004, from http://news.zdnet.co.uk/business/0,39020645,39119121,00.htm
Ian Cho 23:22, 9 Sep 2004 (EST)
Kimberley Howard 18:22, 9 Sep 2004 (EST)
